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1 Problem Determination Aid
File extension: PDAIDУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > Problem Determination Aid
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2 Link Problem Determination Aid
Abbreviation: LPDAУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > Link Problem Determination Aid
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3 Link Problem Determination Aid 2
Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Link Problem Determination Aid 2
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4 Network Problem Determination Application
Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Network Problem Determination Application
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5 depth determination problem
Англо-русский словарь промышленной и научной лексики > depth determination problem
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6 determinación de problemas
• problem determinationDiccionario Técnico Español-Inglés > determinación de problemas
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7 выявление отказа
выявление отказа
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[Л.Г.Суменко. Англо-русский словарь по информационным технологиям. М.: ГП ЦНИИС, 2003.]Тематики
EN
Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > выявление отказа
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8 Problembestimmung
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9 выявление отказа
Computers: problem determination -
10 программа выявления отказов в работе сети ЭВМ
Engineering: network problem determination applicationУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > программа выявления отказов в работе сети ЭВМ
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11 средства выявления отказов
Information technology: problem determination aidsУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > средства выявления отказов
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12 средства определения задач
Engineering: problem determination aidУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > средства определения задач
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13 NPDA
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14 определение
determination
(значений величин)
- (формулировка понятия или термина) — definition definition that "altitude" is to be taken as "pressure altitude".
- (нахождение) дефектов (неисправностей) — detection of defects (troubles)
- графического условного обозначения — definition of symbol
- дефектов (отказавших блоков, узлов и т.п.) — isolating the trouble into...
- (обнаружение) и устранение дефектов — trouble shooting
- координат ппм при помощи пеленга и расстояния — definition of /defining/ waypoint (coordinates) by bearing and distance
- курса — heading determination
- мест (участков) планера, систем, двигателя, могущих повлиять на безопасность эксплуатации — detection of problem areas in airframe, systems and engines
- местоположения ла (общий термин) — position determination. аll position-determination schemes are classified as dead-reckoning or position fixing.
- местоположения ла (безотносительно к предыдущему местоположению) — position fixing. in contrast to dead reckoning, position fixing is the determination of the aircraft position (a fix) without reference to any former position.
- местоположения ла методом счисления пути (относительно предыдущего известного местоположения) — dead reckoning. dead reckoning consists of extra polation of a "known" position to some future time.
- местоположения (ла) методом счисления no звездам — position reckoning using the stars
the stars are used to navigate and reckon position.
- отказавшего двигателя — acquisition of the engine failed
- ппм (промежуточного пункта маршрута) — waypoint definition (wpt def)
- правильного угла захода на посадку — gauging of right approach angle
learn a method of gauging the right approach angle.
- скорости v1 по отношению v1/vn.оп (график) — conversion of v1/vr ratio into v1
- технического состояния деталей и сборочных единиц (раздел рр) — inspection/checkРусско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > определение
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15 определение статуса беженцев
Русско-английский военно-политический словарь > определение статуса беженцев
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16 resolución
f.1 resolution, firmness, decision, intention.2 resolution, decision, dictum.3 annulment, cancellation.4 resolution, disambiguation.* * *1 (decisión) resolution, decision; (determinación) determination, resolve\tomar una resolución to decideresolución fatal death wishresolución judicial court decision* * *noun f.1) resolution2) resolve3) decision* * *SF1) (=decisión) decision2) [de problema] (=acción) solving; (=respuesta) solution3) [de conflicto] resolution4) (Jur)5) (=determinación) resolve, determination6) frm (=resumen)en resolución — in a word, in short, to sum up
7) (Inform)8) Cono Sur (=terminación) finishing, completion* * *1) ( de problema) solution; ( de conflicto) settlement, resolution2) ( decisión) decision3) ( determinación) determination, resolve* * *= determination, purposefulness, resolution, resolution, resolution, single-mindedness, dpi (dots per inch), verdict, judging.Ex. Instead of fighting words with a dogged determination, he got to like them.Ex. The philosophical, brooding Hippopotamians have suffered many attacks by the neighbouring Crocs who are well known for their purposefulness and efficiency.Ex. Unfortunately, these factors simultaneously make the resolution of the situation more intractable.Ex. I was one of the cosigners of a resolution which tried to have the ISBD repealed.Ex. For example, when operating with colour and high resolution graphics, a microcomputer might possibly need 20K of storage.Ex. But first we must create the conditions for single-mindedness and hence the release of our energies (one senses much pent-up energy mixed up with our professional frustrations).Ex. High quality (400 dpi) TIFF files were stored on archival tape, and JPEG thumbnails and full-size images placed on server to be accessed by CGI script.Ex. A verdict of the Department of Education and Science has stated that librarians in future will have to be graduates only.Ex. The first meeting was held on 8 March with the first real judging taking place on 22 March when several tulips were in flower.----* alta resolución = high resolution.* baja resolución = low resolution.* caminar con resolución = march.* con resolución = resolutely.* falta de resolución = procrastination.* orientado hacia la resolución de problemas = problem-orientated, problem-oriented.* resolución anafórica = anaphoric resolution.* resolución de conflictos = conflict resolution, peacemaking [peace-making].* resolución de disputas = dispute settlement.* resolución de la ambigüedad entre términos = term disambiguation, word sense disambiguation.* resolución de problemas = problem solving [problem-solving].* * *1) ( de problema) solution; ( de conflicto) settlement, resolution2) ( decisión) decision3) ( determinación) determination, resolve* * *= determination, purposefulness, resolution, resolution, resolution, single-mindedness, dpi (dots per inch), verdict, judging.Ex: Instead of fighting words with a dogged determination, he got to like them.
Ex: The philosophical, brooding Hippopotamians have suffered many attacks by the neighbouring Crocs who are well known for their purposefulness and efficiency.Ex: Unfortunately, these factors simultaneously make the resolution of the situation more intractable.Ex: I was one of the cosigners of a resolution which tried to have the ISBD repealed.Ex: For example, when operating with colour and high resolution graphics, a microcomputer might possibly need 20K of storage.Ex: But first we must create the conditions for single-mindedness and hence the release of our energies (one senses much pent-up energy mixed up with our professional frustrations).Ex: High quality (400 dpi) TIFF files were stored on archival tape, and JPEG thumbnails and full-size images placed on server to be accessed by CGI script.Ex: A verdict of the Department of Education and Science has stated that librarians in future will have to be graduates only.Ex: The first meeting was held on 8 March with the first real judging taking place on 22 March when several tulips were in flower.* alta resolución = high resolution.* baja resolución = low resolution.* caminar con resolución = march.* con resolución = resolutely.* falta de resolución = procrastination.* orientado hacia la resolución de problemas = problem-orientated, problem-oriented.* resolución anafórica = anaphoric resolution.* resolución de conflictos = conflict resolution, peacemaking [peace-making].* resolución de disputas = dispute settlement.* resolución de la ambigüedad entre términos = term disambiguation, word sense disambiguation.* resolución de problemas = problem solving [problem-solving].* * *A (de un problema) solution; (de un conflicto) settlement, resolutionB (decisión) decisiontomaron or adoptaron la resolución de cerrar el hospital they decided to close the hospitalC (de un contrato) terminationD1 (determinación) determination, resolve2 (cualidad de decisivo) decisiveness* * *
resolución sustantivo femenino
1 ( de problema) solution;
( de conflicto) settlement, resolution
2 ( decisión) decision;
tomaron la resolución de emigrar they decided to emigrate
3 ( determinación) determination, resolve
resolución sustantivo femenino
1 (determinación, decisión) resolution: tomó la resolución de marcharse de casa, he decided to leave home
2 (de un problema, acertijo, etc) solution
' resolución' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
empuje
- arbitraje
English:
decision
- determination
- resolution
- resolve
- single-mindedness
- steadfastness
- strong-mindedness
- ruling
- settlement
- unsettled
* * *resolución nf1. [solución] [de una crisis] resolution;[de un crimen] solution Informát resolución de problemas troubleshooting2. [firmeza] determination, resolve3. [decisión] decision;[de tribunal] ruling; [de Naciones Unidas] resolution;tomar una resolución to take a decision* * *f1 actitud determination, decisiveness3 JUR ruling4 ( decisión):tomar una resolución make o take a decision5 TÉC:de alta resolución high resolution6:en resolución to sum up* * *resolución nf, pl - ciones1) : resolution, settlement2) : decision3) : determination, resolve* * *resolución n determination / resolution -
17 нахождение
finding, determination, location, discovery, locating, detecting• Давайте рассмотрим более легкий способ нахождения... - Let us pursue the easier course of finding...• Данное свойство является основой одного метода нахождения... - This property provides one method of determining...• Задача состоит в нахождении... - The problem is to find numerical solutions for...• Можно ожидать, что метод обеспечит нахождение по меньшей мере одного корня. - The method can be expected to provide at least one root.• Нахождение формулы... связано с трудностями. - The formula of... poses many problems, '• Наша цель в этом параграфе состоит в нахождении... - Our interest in this section is in finding...• Нашей целью является задача нахождения общей формулы для... - The problem is to find a general formula for...• Очевидно, что это более сложная проблема, чем проблема обычного нахождения (чего-л). - This is obviously a more complicated problem than the usual determination of...• Решение уравнения (3), очевидно, эквивалентно нахождению такого v, что... - Solving (3) is clearly equivalent to finding v such that...• Существенный интерес представляет задача нахождения... - It is a problem of considerable interest to determine...• Существует много других способов нахождения... - There are many other ways of finding...• Теорема может быть использована для нахождения... - This theorem can be used to find all solutions of...• Целью следующего параграфа является нахождение условий, которые позволят нам... - The aim of the next section is to establish conditions which enable us to...• Это сводится к нахождению... - This amounts to finding... -
18 проблема
(= задача, вопрос, трудность) problem, task, matter, point, topic, question• В основном, это проблема (чего-л). - This is essentially a matter of...• В связи с этой проблемой интересно найти... - In connection with this problem it is of interest to find...• В этой главе не делалось попыток обсудить очень сложную проблему... - In this chapter no attempt has been made to discuss the very difficult problem of...• Данная проблема полностью совпадает с той, что возникла в связи с... - The problem is exactly the same as that encountered in connection with...• Для большинства подобных проблем достаточно (установить и т. п.)... - For most such problems it is sufficient to...• Другая проблема возникает, когда... - Another problem arises when...• Другим способом рассмотрения данной проблемы является следующий. - Another way of regarding this problem is as follows.• Другой проблемой является возможное, загрязнение... - Another problem is the possible contamination of...• Другой способ решения этот проблемы состоит в том, чтобы взять... - Another way to treat this problem is to take...• Заслуживает упоминания другой подход к проблеме этого типа. - Another approach to problems of this type is worthy of notice.• Здесь мы должны упомянуть о двух проблемах, связанных с... - Two difficulties associated with... should be mentioned here.• Интересные, но трудные проблемы возникают, когда... - Interesting but difficult questions arise when...• Итак, мы сталкиваемся с проблемой... - So we are faced with the problem of...• Их основные недостатки состоят в том, что проблемы, связанные с... - The main disadvantages are the problems associated with...• К настоящему времени несколько ученых исследовали эту проблему. - То date, few investigators have pursued this matter.• Мы не будем касаться проблем, которые... - We will not go into problems which...• Мы обсудим проблему существования и единственности для... - We shall discuss the existence and uniqueness problem for...• Мы сталкиваемся с проблемой... - We are confronted by the task of...• На самом деле данная проблема заключается в решении... - The problem is really one of solving...• Наилучшим образом проблема исследуется с использованием теории... - The problem is best approached through the theory of...• Необходимо рассмотреть эту проблему в некоторых деталях. - It is necessary to consider this problem in some detail.• Обсуждая данную проблему, мы пренебрегли возможностью, что... - In discussing this problem we have neglected the possibility that...• Один путь для разрешения данной проблемы состоит в использовании... - One way of overcoming this problem is to use...• Однако возможно расширить это исследование на более общую проблему, в которой... - It is possible, however, to extend the treatment to a more general problem in which...• Основная проблема состоит в том, что... - The main point is that...• Основная проблема состоит в том, чтобы определить... - The main problem is to determine...• Основной проблемой данной главы является... - Our main business in this chapter is to...• Относительно обсуждения данной проблемы см. Смит [1]. - For a discussion of this problem, see Smith [1].• Очевидно, что это более сложная проблема, чем проблема обычного определения (чего-л). - This is obviously a more complicated problem than the usual determination of...• Перед тем как вернуться к рассмотрению этих проблем, нам необходимо (изучить и т. п.)... - Before returning to these matters, it is necessary to...• По-прежнему остается проблема как обращаться с... - The problem still remains of how to deal with...• Позднее мы вернемся к проблеме о... - Later we shall turn to the question of...• Затем это становится проблемой (чего-л). - Thereafter it is a matter of...• Последнее условие вызывает проблемы, потому что... - The latter condition raises problems, because...• Проблема... до сих пор не имеет удовлетворительного решения. - The problem of... has not yet been solved satisfactorily.• Проблема может усугубляться... - The problem may be accentuated by...• Проблема становится более трудной, когда... - The problem is more difficult when...• Проблема формулируется следующим образом. - The problem is specified as follows.• Проблема, которую мы обязаны позднее рассмотреть, чтобы применять данную идею, состоит в том, что... - A problem that we must eventually face in making use of this concept is...• Проблемы, возникающие в (чем-л), многочисленны и разнообразны. - The problems that arise in... are numerous and varied.• Простейший способ начать изучать проблему состоит в том, что... - The simplest way to approach the problem is to...• Решение подобной проблемы легко выводится путем рассмотрения... - The solution to such a problem is readily deduced by considering...• Чтобы сфокусировать наше внимание на одной специальной проблеме (= цели), мы... - In order to focus our attention on a specific objective, we shall...• С этим преобразованием связаны две проблемы. - There are two problems with this arrangement.• Таким образом, проблема сводится к проблеме выбора... - The problem thus becomes one of choosing...• Тем самым предлагается другой подход к проблеме... - This suggests another approach to the problem of...• Теперь мы переходим к другой проблеме... - We now pass to another problem...• Теперь проблема технически решена. - Technically, the problem is now solved.• Теперь та же проблема будет обсуждаться в количественном аспекте. - The problem will now be discussed quantitatively.• Только первая из этих двух проблем будет рассмотрена здесь нами. - Only the first of these two problems will concern us here.• Условие а = b приблизительно выполнено в любой проблеме, где... - The condition a = b is approximately satisfied in any problem where...• Хотя это и не слишком практическая проблема, однако интересно (рассмотреть и т. п.)... - Although not a very practical problem, it is of interest to...• Часто возникающая проблема состоит в следующем... - A problem which arises very frequently is...• Чтобы изучить данную проблему, мы... - То treat this problem, we...• Чтобы проиллюстрировать возникающие проблемы, мы можем... - То illustrate the problems involved, we can...• Чтобы сформулировать более общую проблему, мы... - То formulate the more general problem, we...• Эта проблема не возникает при... - This problem does not arise with...• Эта проблема уже немного обсуждалась в первом параграфе. - This problem has already been discussed to some extent in Section 1.• Эти аспекты проблемы все еще не исследованы. - These aspects of the problem have not yet been investigated.• Эти два примера иллюстрируют некоторые из проблем... - These two examples illustrate some of the problems of...• Эти проблемы отчасти разрешаются, если... - These problems are partially overcome if...• Это проблема соглашения, что... - It is a matter of convention that...• Это проблема, которая уже обсуждалась в связи с... - This is a problem which has been discussed in connection with... -
19 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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20 Creativity
Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with DisorderEven to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)[P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity
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